Therian mammals, including marsupials and eutherians, may be identified and discriminated by the quantity, form, and replacement pattern of their teeth.
However, some early Mesozoic fossils with therian characteristics have been discovered in Mongolia, and these cannot be definitively assigned to one of the groups;
that is, we do not know which group of therian mammals they belong to, or whether they belong to another closely related group that has since become extinct.
The infant molars are replaced by teeth known as premolars (also known as bicuspids). A whole adult dentition consists of 32 teeth, 16 on top and 16 on bottom.
The primary dentition is replaced by permanent central incisors, lateral incisors, canines, and first and second premolars. The permanent premolars replace the primary molars, and the permanent molars erupt posterior to those.
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which finding provides evidence that opioid drugs enhance the brain reward system in animal models?
Answer:
Opioids are currently the most effective pain relieving pharmaceuticals. However, they are also rewarding and their repeated use can lead to dependence and addiction. In fact, addiction to opioid analgesics is a growing socioeconomic and health problem with potentially serious consequences documented by a rise in deaths due to overdose [1, 2]. A critical CNS locus for opioid reward is the ventral tegmental area (VTA, glossary, vide infra). Recent work indicates that there is great anatomical and pharmacological heterogeneity in VTA neurons and that there are numerous opioid
c. how do the thermodynamic contributions involved in establishing the equilibrium of the folded to unfolded state of proteins? (proteinfolded
When a protein's structural changes are being tracked by spectroscopic or calorimetric methods in the presence of a denaturing agent, this is referred to as thermodynamics of protein folding.
What thermodynamic variables affect the folding of proteins?Protein folding is a very delicate process that is regulated by a variety of external stimuli, such as temperature, pH, chemicals, molecule crowding, electric and magnetic fields, and temperature. These elements affect a protein's capacity to fold into the appropriate functional forms.
The hydrophobic effect and traditional hydrogen bonding, coupled with Coulombic interactions and van der Waals interactions, are the main causes of protein folding.
The research revealed that several ideas concur that protein folding is a subject to thermodynamic regulation.
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What mode of nutrition distinguishes animals from fungi, both of which are heterotrophs?.
The mode of nutrition which differentiates animals from fungi, both of them being heterotrophs, is- Ingestion: Eating.
Animals and fungi are both heterotrophs, i.e. they are not able to synthesize their own food like the autotrophs (plants). The only difference between them is that the animals take in their food by means of Ingestion and digest the food inside their body. However, fungi are saprophytic in nature, i.e. they feed on dead and decaying organisms, and are not able to digest the food inside their body.
The question is incomplete. The complete question is:-
Which mode of nutrition differentiates animals from fungi, both of them being heterotrophs?
The options are given below:-
(a) Vitamins: Mode,
(b) Ingestion: Eating,
(c) Mitosis: Scales,
(d) None of the above.
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Write a short note on how Forest influence the quality of Air, soil and water resources.
Forest influences the quality of Air, soil, and water resources in many ways. It helps in maintaining the temperature of the earth.
Forest is an ecological system that includes many life forms. It helps in controlling various climatic changes. Forest protects biodiversity by helping many plants and animals.
The role of forest in influencing air, water, and soil involves the following:
Air: The forest helps in maintaining various gases in the atmosphere like oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc. It purifies the air and in turn, reduces the greenhouse effect.
Soil: The forest adds nutrients to the soil. Forest helps in firmly binding the soil by absorbing nutrients and water using trees. This, in turn, helps in reducing soil erosion.
Water: The forest helps increase the level of underground water through the rain. Eventually helping in water conservation. It balances and regulates the water cycle.
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Answer:
(i) Forests protect the soil from erosion. (ii) Plants and animals in a forest are not dependent on one another. (iii) Forests influence the climate and water cycle. (iv) Soil helps forests to grow and regenerate.
Explanation:
drag each label into the appropriate category to designate which reflex is described by the following terms.
The Spinal Cord's Structures To indicate if a particular item is a component of the CNS, drag each label into the relevant category.
What are the different categories for reflexes?There are two types of reflexes: somatic and autonomic. Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands are typically activated during autonomic reflexes, which are uncontrollable and mediated by the autonomic division of the nervous system.
What are the many sorts of reflexes?Reflex actions are the unintentional movements of a body component in response to a specific stimuli. Because neither will or consciousness is necessary for access, these activities are automatic. The pupillary light reflex is probably the most widely recognized reflex.
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Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes produce:
- Class II MHCs
- Self proteins
- Antibodies, which make holes in cell membrane of infected cells
- Perforin, which makes holes in cell membrane of infected cells
Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes produce Perforin, which makes holes in cell membrane of infected cells.
What is Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes?It is possible to extract cytotoxic T cells from healthy blood cells, develop them in the lab, and then provide them to a patient to eradicate cancer cells. A cytotoxic T cell is a specific kind of lymphocyte and white blood cell. additionally known as killer T cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes.In order to kill their prey, cytotoxic T cells induce apoptosis in them (Fig. 8.35). Centrifugation can quickly bring target cells and cytotoxic T cells into contact, causing antigen-specific target cells to be programmed to die within five minutes, albeit the death may not be fully apparent for many hours.To learn more about cytotoxic T lymphocytes refer to:
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from an evolutionary perspective, why might monogamy be one of the most common forms of mating systems in humans?
Males could then defend their young from other males in their ancestors' communities who would murder them in order to mate with their moms.
Monogamy: Is it harmful?Unfortunately, if monogamy is practiced in an unhealthy way, it may turn poisonous. In a poisonous monogamous culture where relationships are prescribed by society, this is especially true.
Why is monogamy such a rarity?Genes are the last arbiter, according to evolution. And if genes desire anything, it's to spread as much as they can. Therefore, mammalian monogamy is uncommon. While men can travel and inseminate several other females at that time, females must wait a long gestation period before having a kid.
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which of the follow is part of the synthesis view of fiscal policy with which both keynesian and classical economists agree?
Both keynesian and classical economists agree with : Automatic stabilizers help reduce the fluctuations in aggregate demand and output.
What is the fiscal policy ?The use of taxation and expenditure by the government to affect the economy is known as fiscal policy. Fiscal policy is often used by governments to encourage robust, long-term growth and to lower poverty.
The use of taxation and expenditure by the government to affect the economy is known as fiscal policy. Fiscal policy is often used by governments to encourage robust, long-term growth and to lower poverty.
Tax reductions and increased public spending are the two main manifestations of expansionary fiscal policy. Both of these measures aim to boost overall demand while reducing budget surpluses or adding to deficits.
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air pollution can influence a person’s quality of life. which best identifies the influence of air pollution?
Air pollution can be recognized as the influence of a bad environment.
Air pollution is a condition in which the air contains harmful molecules, either caused by human activities or due to natural occurrences from the Earth. The main cause of air pollution today is the burning of fossil fuels, such as oil and coal. Combustion of these fuels is usually used to produce energy for electricity generation or transportation.
Poor environmental conditions due to the many activities that use fossil fuels in motorized vehicles or industrial factories around us, are the main cause of air pollution. The content of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels traps heat in the atmosphere which will result in poor air quality. Air pollution will affect a person's quality of life by having a different adverse impact on each person depending on each person's immunity. A person can suffer from various kinds of diseases ranging from eye irritation, dizziness and even bronchitis and pneumonia due to the content of harmful substances in the air.
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what does it mean when 30% of the phenotypic variation in a quantitative trait is due to environmental variation
acts on quantitative qualities controlled by several genes, often known as expanding the options Favors at least two phenotypes Specific genotype fitness values are higher inside one environment & lower in another.
Which are the two forms of variation in phenotypes?Phenotypic variation in populations is a result of three nongenetic factors, including stochastic developmental variation or environmentally induced variability (EIV) (SDV).
What do phenotypic and genotypic variation mean?The genotype, which is the actual DNA code, is the combination of alleles in a particular gene.Phenotypic variation—the difference in phenotypes across individuals—can be caused by genetic variation.A genotype's physical expression is called a phenotype.
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A nucleotide deletion early in the coding sequence of a gene would most likely result in __________.
Early deletion of nucleotides in the coding sequence of a gene can result in missense mutation, frameshift mutation, multiple missense mutation and non-functional protein.
A mutation is a change in a short portion of a gene's nucleotide sequence. One nucleotide is frequently replaced by another in point mutations; other changes involve the insertion or deletion of one or more nucleotides. Large deletions can eliminate a whole gene or a number of nearby genes, whereas small deletions just remove one or a few nucleotides from a gene. The impacted protein or proteins' functionality may change as a result of the removed DNA. A frameshift mutation in a gene refers to the insertion or deletion of nucleotide bases in non multiplier numbers of three. This is important because when a cell makes a protein it reads the code for the gene in groups of three bases. A missense variant is a type of substitution in which a nucleotide change replaces one protein building block (amino acid) with another in the protein made from the gene. An amino acid change can alter the function of a protein. Another type of substitution is nonsense transformation. However, instead of a change in one amino acid, the altered DNA sequence results in a stop signal that tells the cell in advance to stop making the protein.
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In the previous section, we saw a molecule made of three atoms to have a linear shape. In this section, we have observed a three atom molecule with a bent molecular shape. What is causing the difference in the two shapes?.
The causing difference in the two shapes is a standard explanation.
For bent vs linear, linear is a straight line with bond angles of 180 degrees. This only occurs when there are no lone pairs to cause repulsion. When there are lone pairs, then the molecule will be bent because the lone pairs cause the bonded elements to move away from the electrons.
Bent = Linear but bent due to the Lone Pairs that it contains, the more Lone Pairs the greater the bent and the smaller the degree.
If you have a lone pair of electrons you know the molecule is bent. In the case of water, there are two bonds connecting to H, but there are also two lone pairs pushing the two bonds, creating a bent shape rather than a straight line.
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Which type of stimulus will maximally activate the sensory receptors within the semicircular ducts?.
Answer:
Rotational Motion
Explanation:
Fruit flies have 8 chromosomes in their body cells, while dandelion cells have 16 chromosomes. Which species do you predict makes the more genetically varied offspring? cite evidence from the model of meiosis to support your prediction.
Offspring of Fruit flies (Drosophila) and dandelion cells have same genetical variability because both of them are diploid cells.
During Meiosis , Each and every diploid species receives the same response.
There are just half as many chromosomes in somatic (body) cells.
Gametes cells have n cells, whereas somatic cells include 2n cells.
Fruit fly (Drosophila) gametes have four chromosomes, but dandelion cells gamete have eight chromosomes.
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How do diffusion and osmosis help amoebas survive?
How do diffusion and osmosis limit the size of a cell?
By diffusion and osmosis removing their wastes and supplying them with useful substances help amoebas in survive.
How does diffusion and osmosis help a cell survive?Human existence depends on diffusion and osmosis because they enable cells to passively absorb nutrients and expel waste. This is due to the fact that osmosis and diffusion both entail the net movement of molecules along concentration gradients and as a result, they don't need any energy input to proceed.
Amoeba is assisted in surviving by diffusion and osmosis, which remove their waste and provide them with nutrients. Osmosis and diffusion are both passive processes, meaning they don't need the energy to work.
The maximum size that a single cell may grow to is constrained by diffusion, which only works over a certain distance. Any food and waste requirements of a single-celled microbe, such as an amoeba, may be met through diffusion.
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If there were one trna for every codon that codes for an amino acid, how many different trnas should there be?.
There must be 61 different tRNAs There must be different tRNAs A codon only functions when coding if a tRNA with a complementary anticodon is also found in the same cell and must supply the corresponding amino acid increase
Since most of the 61 sense codons have their own tRNAs in the eukaryotic cytosol, most cells have 40-60 different tRNAs. tRNAs that accept the same amino acid are called iso-accepting tRNAs. Human mitochondria have only 22 different tRNAs, and plant chloroplasts have about 30 different tRNAs. An enzyme that combines specific amino acids. Organisms use up to 20 tRNA synthetases to make aminoacyl tRNAs, one for each of the 20 canonical amino acids. tRNA forms both normal base pairs (5'-UUC-3' codon with 3'-AAG-5' anticodon) and atypical base pairs with the 3rd codon position so it can bind to both codons. (5'-UUU-3'-codon and 3'-AAG-5'-anticodon).
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what is the correct order in which inhaled air sequentially moves through the structures of the respiratory passageways starting from the mouth ?
Correct order in which inhaled air sequentially moves through the structures of the respiratory passageways starting from the mouth is : Nostrils →pharynx →larynx →trachea →alveoli.
How is inhaled air moves through the structures of the respiratory passageways?The process of taking air into the lungs is known as inhalation, and process of breathing it out is exhalation and air is inhaled through the mouth or the nose. The sequence of air passage during inhalation is: Nostrils →pharynx →larynx →trachea →alveoli.
Organ system that helps in the breathing process is called respiratory system. It includes nasal airway (Nose, Pharynx, Larynx, and Trachea), Lungs and blood vessels for the gaseous exchange.
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what is the fill-in endoskeleton or exoskeleton
Answer: An exoskeleton is a hard external skeleton that protects the outer surface of an organism. An endoskeleton is an internal skeleton composed of hard, mineralized tissue that also enables movement by attachment to muscles.
Explanation: An endoskeleton is a skeleton found within the interior of the body; it provides structural support and protection for the internal organs and tissues of an organism.
Endoskeletons can take several forms, and can differ in complexity, shape and function, depending on the requirements of the animal. Most vertebrates have an endoskeleton, which is comprised of mineralized tissue in the form of bone and cartilage. This ‘true skeleton’ is formed from the mesoderm during embryogenesis.
Examples :
humans
horses
monkeys
dogs
sharks
An exoskeleton is defined as a stiff outer covering made of chitin and calcium carbonate located on the exterior of some creatures. It covers, supports, and protects the main body of many organisms, for example, invertebrates and crustaceans. Oftentimes, exoskeletons include multiple segments linked by flexible joints that allow for mobility. Exoskeletons are not a living structure and act as the main structural component of creatures who possess them.
Examples :
Grasshoppers
Bees
Cicadas
Scorpions
Crabs
Lobsters
Shrimp
Snails
Clams
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what is love for and why?
Answer:
Being there for someone is what a real relationship needs. When we neglect to put in the effort is when things don't work out with someone that could have been perfect for us.
Love is considered to be both positive and negative, with its virtue representing human kindness, compassion, and affection, as "the unselfish loyal and benevolent concern for the good of another.
Explanation:
do antibiotics create resistant strains of bacteria? choose one: a. yes, overexposure to antibiotics causes the proteins on the surface of the bacteria to change. b. no, to become resistant to antibiotics, individual(s) in a population must randomly mutate, and that mutation, if heritable, causes the bacterial population to become resistant to antibiotics. c. no, antibiotics can work only on the strain they were tested for. d. yes, overuse of antibiotics causes the dna of bacteria to mutate and the bacteria becomes resistant.
No, to become resistant to antibiotics, individual(s) in the population must randomly mutate and that mutation, if heritable, will cause the bacterial population resistant to antibiotics.
Antibiotics are drug treatments that combat infections resulting from bacteria in humans and animals by using both killing the microorganism and making it difficult for the bacteria to develop and multiply.
An antibiotic is a sort of antimicrobial substance lively towards microorganisms. It's miles the most important sort of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections, and antibiotic medicinal drugs are widely used in the remedy and prevention of such infections.
Antibiotics are used to deal with or save you from some forms of bacterial contamination.
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the most important step in making sure the proper amino acid is added to a growing polypeptide chain is:
The anticodon that binds to the proper position on the mRNA is only found on the tRNA that carries the subsequent amino acid in the polypeptide chain. By using this approach, the chain's amino acids are inserted in the right order.
What controls the addition of the proper amino acid to the expanding protein chain during translation?The aminoacyl-tRNA anticodon base couples with the mRNA codon at the A (amino acid) site to ensure that the proper amino acid is added to the lengthening polypeptide chain.
What two procedures guarantee that a developing polypeptide chain is augmented with the proper amino acid?First, each aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase only binds a single amino acid to the proper tRNA after recognizing it specifically.
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What evidence do you look for to determine whether a cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic?
A.)
B.)
C.)
D.)
Answer:
Eukaryotic cells have a distinct nucleus that houses the cell's genetic material, whereas prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and instead have free-floating genetic material. This is where the two types of cells most significantly diverge.
in tobacco plants, green color (c) is dominant to white (c). you cross 2 heterozygous green tobacco plants. what is the genotypic ratio of the offspring?
If in tobacco plants green color (C) is dominant to white (c) and we cross 2 heterozygous green tobacco plants Cc then the genotypic ratio of the offspring is 1/2 Cc, 1/4 CC and 1/4 cc.
What is a heterozygous individual?A heterozygous individual can be defined as an individual who carries two different gene variants or alleles for a given locus, which in this case is represented by a green color (C) allele that is dominant to the white (c) allele.
In this case, the Punnet square for this genetic cross is:
C c
C CC Cc
c Cc cc
Therefore, with this data, we can see that the genetic cross between heterozygous individuals is able to produce a progeny with a genotypic ratio of the offspring equal to 1/2 Cc, 1/4 CC and 1/4 cc.
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Based on the pattern of inheritance known as sex linkage, if a male is a hemophiliac, how many genes for this trait are present on the sex chromosomes in each of his diploid cells?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
Answer:
Based on the pattern of inheritance known as sex linkage, if a male is a hemophiliac, he has two genes for this trait on the sex chromosomes in each of his diploid cells, which is the correct answer choice (B).
Explanation:
In humans, the trait for hemophilia is a recessive trait that is carried on the X chromosome. A male has only one X chromosome and one Y chromosome, while a female has two X chromosomes. This means that a male will express a recessive trait carried on the X chromosome if he inherits a copy of the mutated gene from his mother, while a female will only express the trait if she inherits a copy of the mutated gene from both of her parents.
Since a male hemophiliac inherited the mutated gene for hemophilia from his mother, he has two copies of the mutated gene, one on each of his X and Y chromosomes. This means that there are two genes for this trait on the sex chromosomes in each of his diploid cells.
The other answer choices are incorrect, as they do not accurately reflect the pattern of inheritance for sex-linked traits.
if you take a test in the same condition in which you studied for the test, you are using ____ _____ learning.
If you take a test in the same condition in which you studied for the test, you are using state-dependent learning.
What is state-dependent learning?State-dependent learning refers to the situation in which the internal state is distinct from the observed and or reported during the training procedure, thereby leading to distinct performance that may impair the final results of the process.
Therefore, with this data, we can see that State-dependent learning is a process associated with the differential state between the internal condition and observations related to such state of the process.
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7. What is the difference between the
bonds that hold each nucleotide together
and the bonds between the nitrogenous
bases?
Answer:
The bonds which hold the nucleotides together are covalent bonds and the bonds between nitrogenous bases are hydrogen bonds.
Explanation:
I'll just put some additional info here in case you need it:
There are two types of bonds in each nucleotide: glycosidic bond: bond between a nitrogenous base and deoxyribose pentose sugar; and phospho-diester bond: bond between two deoxyribose pentose sugar molecules. Both of these bonds are covalent, meaning that the participating atoms share electrons.
The bonds between nitrogenous bases are hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bond is an attraction between two atoms that already participate in other chemical bonds. So it is not really "a real bond" but rather electrostatic force of attraction.
why is the blood-testis barrier , formed by systentocyte cells, important? group of answer choices to prevent immune cells to attack sperm cells. because immature sperm cells lose their motility when they encounter any blood component actually, the blood-testis barrier has no function. because some blood contents are toxic to the spermatozoa
The blood-testis barrier, formed by systentocyte cells, important beacuse it prevent immune cells to attack sperm cells.
The blood testis barrier prevents nutrients and leukocytes from passing through the Sertoli cells and into the seminiferous tubules, shielding developing spermatogenetic cells from contact with immune cells and antibodies.
It stops the basal lamina from being breached by the membrane antigens of differentiating sperm, which would otherwise enter the circulation and trigger the immune system.
Neurons are outnumbered by astrocytes, specialised glial cells, by a factor of roughly five. They continuously tile the entire central nervous system (CNS) and carry out numerous significant, complex activities in a healthy CNS.
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What is the name of the scientist that developed the classification system we use today?.
Answer:
Carl Linnaeus
Explanation:
All modern classification systems have their roots in the Linnaean classification system. It was developed by Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus in the 1700s. He tried to classify all living things that were known at his time.
micro bio antibodies present across individuals from different but related species are known as
When antibodies against a disease are given to a person rather than the individual making them naturally through their immune system, passive immunity is created.
Why do antibodies exist?Proteins called antibodies serve as your body's defense against foreign substances. Your immune system creates antibodies, which bind to these foreign molecules and transport them out of your body. Immunoglobulin is a different term for antibody.
What are immunogenicity and antigen?Antigenicity is the capacity of a substance to be specifically recognized by the antibodies produced as a result of the immunological response to the given substance, whereas immunogenicity refers to a substance's capacity to cause cellular and humoral immune response.
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which pathogen causes toxic shock syndrome? group of answer choices vibrio cholerae staphylococcus aureus pseudomonas aeruginosa
Toxic shock syndrome is most frequently brought on by Staphylococcus aureus (staph). Staph is present in the skin and nostrils of about 25% of individuals and animals. Staph can produce toxins that can lead to food poisoning, but in healthy individuals, it typically does not make them sick.
Either streptococcus or staphylococcus bacteria are responsible for toxic shock syndrome (TSS). These bacteria often reside harmlessly on the skin, nose, or mouth, but if they infiltrate deeper into the body, they may emit toxins that affect organ function and tissue.
Hemolysin, exfoliative toxin, enterotoxin, leukotoxin, and toxic-shock syndrome toxin-1 are some of the toxins that S. aureus most frequently secret.
Thus, we can conclude that toxic shock syndrome is brought on by Staphylococcus aureus (staph) germs.
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